Listed below is background material on the California Current Large Marine Ecosystem. To keep this site up-to-date, users are requested to provide relevant information or links to the LME webmaster .
 

Brief Introduction:

This LME is characterized by its temperate climate. It a transition ecosystem between subtropical and subarctic water masses with an upwelling coastal phenomenon. The California Current Large Marine Ecosystem is separated from the Gulf of Alaska LME by the Subarctic Current, which flows eastward from the western Rim of the Pacific Ocean. The California Current system is very complex and is further described in major currents of the North Pacific Ocean. Natural environmental change is the primary force driving the LME, with intensive fishing as the secondary driving force. Important hypotheses concerned with the growing impacts of pollution, overexploitation, and environmental changes on sustained biomass yields are under investigation. LME book chapters and articles pertaining to this LME include MacCall, 1986, Mullin, 1991, Bakun, 1993, Bottom et al., 1993, McGowan et al., 1999, Brodeur et al., 1999 and Lluch-Belda et al., 2003.
 

I. Productivity:

The upwelling coastal phenomenon, El Niño, and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) result in strong interannual oscillations of the productivity of the ecosystem and, consequently, of the catch levels of different species groups (see Bakun 1993, and FAO, 2003). ENSO events are characterized locally by an increase in temperature, a rise in coastal sea level, diminished upwelling and increased coastal rainfall (see Bakun, 1993). The California Current Large Marine Ecosystem is considered a Class II, moderately high (150-300 gC/m2-yr) productivity ecosystem based on SeaWiFS global primary productivity estimates. There is evidence of a decline in zooplankton abundance, which might be an indication of a major regime shift (see California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI) a program a program that has sampled zooplankton biomass almost continuously from 1956 to 1980). Miller (1996) reports a significant deepening of the thermocline off California, which he attributes to a deepening and weakening of the Aleutian Low (decadal scale), and to waves propagating through the ocean from the tropics (interannual scale). There is speculation as to what causes changes in the eastern bifurcation of the Subarctic Current into the California Current, and the possible effects of these changes on biological production in this LME. These biomass changes appear to be inversely related to those occurring in the Gulf of Alaska LME to the North (see Brodeur et al., 1999). For a study of interannual variability impacts on the LME, see Lluch-Belda et al., 2003. There is a need for a better understanding of the climate’s role and seasonal change in the regulation of populations and communities, and of the feedback loops that determine community structure, regulate energy flow and population dynamics.   For a study of the difference in chlorophyll and sea surface temperature during the El Nino/La Nina period of 1998/1999, see Kahru and Mitchell, GRL, vol. 27 no. 18, Sep 15, 2000.  Also review the initiative by Miller et al on "Observing and Modeling the California Current System".  Information on the U.S. GLOBEC Northeast Pacific Program is available as well as a CalCOFI Zooplankton database .

II. Fish and Fisheries:

There is positive correlation between indices of upwelling intensity and recruitment success for commercially important fish stocks. However, dispersal by the seaward Ekman transport appears to limit fish spawning in the area, with fish migrating large distances to the Southern California Bight between upwellings to spawn (Bakun, 1993).The boundaries of NOAA’s Pacific Coast region correspond to those of the California Current LME, except that the LME extends to Baja California, Mexico. Natural environmental change is the primary force driving the LME, with intensive fishing as the secondary driving force. These forces are believed to be resulting in long-term shifts in abundance levels of both sardines and anchovies in this LME. The CalCOFI program (California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations) was originally set up to examine the reasons of a decline of the Pacific sardine, and to study its physical and biotic habitat (see CalCOFI Committee, 1990). The collapse of the Pacific sardine is an example of its cascading effects on other ecosystem components including marine birds. For a time series of sardine and anchovy spawning biomass from 1930 to 1985, see MacCall, 1986. The major commercial fish species are Pacific salmon, pelagic fishes (Pacific sardine, northern anchovy, jack mackerel, chub (Pacific) mackerel, Pacific herring), groundfish, and Pacific halibut (see Our Living Oceans, 1999). Shrimp, crab, clam and abalone have high commercial value (see Our Living Oceans, 1999).Total catch has fluctuated from 900,000 metric tons in 1990 to 600,000 metric tons in 1999, with a crash down to 450,000 tons in 1992 (see FAO, 2003, graph p. 64).   A recent compilation of species residing in the nearshore California Current LME can be reviewed at the  California Fish and Game site . For detailed fish catch statistics for this LME, see data collected by the University of British Columbia Fisheries Center . FAO also has catch statistics for the last decade. The catch composition is diverse, with cods, hakes and haddocks contributing more than 30% of the catch (see FAO, 2003 as well as the figure below). Flounders, halibuts and soles, cods, hakes and haddocks crashed in 1991 and 1992. The cod collapse was followed by an increase in gadiform catches (mainly of Merluccius products), which have since remained high. Most stocks, including all 5 salmon species (chinook, coho, sockeye, pink and chum), are fully utilized or overutilized. For statistics on landings of coho, chinook (both commercial and recreational), sockeye, chum, and pink salmon between 1960 and 1997 in this LME, see Our Living Oceans, 1999. The long term potential yield, a term analogous to the concept of Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) in fisheries science, is set at 852,263 tones for this LME (see Our Living Oceans, 1999). Fisheries management, especially for salmon, is complex (there are conflicting jurisdictions, and the salmon originate from several rivers). A comprehensive plan for the management of marine resources in this LME was developed (see Bottom et al., 1989, and Our Living Oceans, 1999). Efforts are underway to implement ecosystem management in this LME. The various management methods presently used are described on page 176 of Our Living Oceans. There is a need to know more about competitive and predatory interactions, and about climate effects on the fish community.

III. Pollution and Ecosystem Health:

TThe decline of species abundance coincides with a change in oceanographic regime. The major environmental threats to this LME are the intensive harvesting of commercial fish, releases of captive-bred salmon, low-level, and chronic pollution from multiple sources (see Bottom et al., 1993). Habitat degradation, dam construction, logging, agriculture, increased urbanization, increased coastal populations, grazing and pollution are factors affecting the freshwater needed for spawning and juvenile rearing.  For this LME as a whole, water clarity and dissolved oxygen are good, benthos and fish tissue are fair, coastal wetlands, eutrophic condition and sediment, are poor (EPA’s 7 primary indicators for this LME in EPA, 2001). The main problem is sediment contamination. The potential for benthic community degradation and fish contamination is increasing (EPA, 2001). A decline in seabirds such as the sooty shearwater has been observed. The LME contains a large seabird and marine mammal population (Bakun, 1993) that includes sea lions and elephant seals. Pinnipeds are increasing rapidly and they are consuming large quantities of fish (DeMaster, 1983). For more information on marine mammals as indicators of LME health, see Our Living Oceans, 1999, p. 238. There is a lack of consistent monitoring for health and pollution in this LME.

IV. Socioeconomic conditions:

The LME borders northern California, Oregon, Washington and Baja California, Mexico. 3 major estuaries, the San Francisco Bay, the Columbia River and Puget Sound, contribute to the local economies of the area and enhance the quality of life for those who live here. Puget Sound provides valuable habitat for fish and wildlife, and supports one of the leading trade centers on the West Coast. There are increasing human population pressures in Puget Sound, the Seattle-Tacoma region, San Francisco Bay, and southern California. The population increased 45% between 1970 and 1980, according to the U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996. An increase in the demand for oil, gas, and mineral resources (e.g., chromite-bearing black sands and titanium sands off the Oregon and Washington coasts, sand, and gravel dredging) has stimulated an exploration of the non-living resources of the Exclusive Economic zone.   The Pacific Northwest Coastal Ecosystems Regional Study (PNCERS) explores how coastal ecosystems can respond to the natural variability of the ocean and atmosphere and to the effects of human activities.
 

V. Governance:

The LME is bordered by Mexico and the USA. Some critical issues requiring management include wild salmon stocks, and significant loss of wild salmon spawning and rearing habitat (see EPA, 2001, p. 153). The Pacific Fishery Management Council (PFMC) manages fisheries in this LME. US States and tribal fishery agencies cooperate with the PFMC. For instance, a Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission (NWIFC) is located in Washington State.  However, the 3 US States bordering this LME have differing agendas. The PFMC has developed fishery management plans for salmon, groundfish and coastal pelagic species (see also “Fish and Fisheries”). It recommends Pacific halibut harvest regulations to the International Pacific Halibut Commission.  See  The Oregon Ocean Resources Management Plan (Oregon Ocean Resources Management Task Force, 1988), which develops general policies for the use of living and non-living resources in federal and state waters of the Oregon continental margin. For information on the management of California's Ocean Resources, see the  Executive Summary . In California, some species are managed by the Pacific Fishery Management Council, while others are managed by state agencies such as the California legislature and the California Fish and Game Commission .  The Mexican portion of the LME has minimal fisheries regulation, with only some fauna and marine mammal protection. There is a Puget Sound Ambient Monitoring Program (PSAMP). For information concerning the San Francisco Bay Estuary Project, see http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/sfep.

References:

Articles and LME volumes:

Bakun, Andrew. 1993. "The California Current, Benguela Current, and Southwestern Atlantic Shelf
Ecosystems: A Comparative Approach to Identifying Factors Regulating Biomass Yields." in Kenneth Sherman, Lewis M. Alexander, and Barry D. Gold (eds), 1993. Large Marine Ecosystems, Stress, Mitigation and Sustainability. (Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science) pp.199-221.

Bottom, Daniel L., Jones, Kim K., Rodgers, Jeffrey D., and Brown, Robin F. 1993. Research and
Management in the Northern California Current Ecosystem. in Kenneth Sherman, Lewis M. Alexander, and Barry D. Gold (eds), 1993. Large Marine Ecosystems, Stress, Mitigation and Sustainability. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Washington, D.C. pp. 259-271.

Brodeur, R.D., Frost, B.W., Hare, S.R., Francis, R.C., and W.J. Ingraham, Jr., 1999. “Interannual variations
in Zooplankton Biomass in the Gulf of Alaska, and Covariation with California Current Zooplankton Biomass. in Kenneth Sherman and Qisheng Tang (eds), Large Marine Ecosystems of the Pacific Rim—Assessment, Sustainability, and Management. (Blackwell Science) pp. 106-138.

EPA, 2001. National Coastal Condition Report.

FAO, 2003. Trends in oceanic captures and clustering of large marine ecosystems—2 studies based on the
FAO capture database. FAO fisheries technical paper 435. 71 pages.

Lluch Belda, D.,  DB Lluch Cota and S. Lluch Cota, 2003. Interannual variability impacts on the California
Current Large Marine Ecosystem (volume in press).

MacCall, Alec D. 1986. "Changes in the Biomass of the California Current Ecosystem." in Kenneth
Sherman and Lewis M. Alexander (eds.), Variability and Management of Large Marine
Ecosystems (Boulder: Westview-AAAS Selected Symposium 99) pp. 33-54.

McGowan, J.A., Chelton, D.B. and A. Conversi, 1999. Plankton patterns, climate, and change in the
California Current. in Kenneth Sherman and Qisheng Tang (eds), Large Marine Ecosystems of the Pacific Rim—Assessment, Sustainability, and Management. (Blackwell Science) pp. 63-105.

Morgan, J., 1989. Large Marine Ecosytems in the Pacific Ocean. in Kenneth Sherman, and Lewis M.
Alexander (eds), Biomass Yields and Geography of Large Marine Ecosystems. Westview Press. 377-394.

Mullin, M. M. 1991. Spatial-Temporal Scales and Secondary Production Estimates in the California
Current Ecosystem. in Kenneth Sherman, Lewis M. Alexander, and Barry D. Gold (eds), Food Chains, Yields, Models, and Management of Large Marine Ecosystems. Westview Press) pp. 165-192.

Our living oceans—report on the status of U.S. Living Marine Resources, 1999. NOAA. 301 pages.

Other references: 

Bakun, A. and Nelson, C.S. 1977. Climatology of upwelling-related processes off Baja California.
CalCOFI Rep. 19:107-127.

Bedford, D., Jow, T., Klingbeil, R., Read, R., Spratt, J., and Warner, R. 1983. Review of some California
fisheries. Calif. Coop. Ocean. Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:6-10.

Bottom D.L. and Jones, K.K. 1990. Species composition, distribution, and inverterbrate prey of fish
assemblages in the Columbia River estuary. Prog. Oceanogr. 25:243-270.

Bottom, D.L. et al. 1989. Management of living marine resources, a research plan for the Washington and
Oregon continental margin. Publication No. NCRI-T-89-004. National Coastal Resources Research and Development Institute, Newport, OR.

Bottom, D.L., et al. 1986. Research and development of Oregon’s coastal salmon stocks. Oregon
Department of Fish and Wildlife Progress Reports (Fish), Project No. AFC-127, 30 September 1985 to 29 September 1986, Portland, OR.

Brodeur R.D., and D.M. Ware, 1995. Interdecadal variability in distribution and catch rates of epipelagic
nekton in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. In Climate change and northern fish populations. R. Beamish, ed. Can. Spec. Pub. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 121-329-356.

CalCOFI Committee. 1990. Fortieth Anniversary Symposium of the CalCOFI Conference. CalCOFI Rep.
31:25-59.

California Dept. of Fish and Game. 1990. Review of some California fisheries for 1989. CalCOFI Rep.
31:9-21.

DeMaster, D. 1983. Annual consumption of northern elephant seals and California sea lions in the
California Current (abstract). Calif. Coop. Ocean. Fish. Invest. Annual Conference 1983, Program and Abstracts.

Hammann, M.G., Baumgartner, T.R., and Badan-Dangon, A. 1988. Coupling of the Pacific sardine
(Sardinops sagax caeruleus) life cycle with the Gulf of California pelagic environment. CalCOFI Rep. 24:102-109.

Husby, D.M., and Nelson, C.S. 1982. Turbulence and vertical stability in the California Current. CalCOFI
Rep. 23:113-129.

Klingbeil, R. 1983. Pacific mackerel: A resurgent resource and fishery of the California Current. Calif.
Coop. Ocean. Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:35-45.

Kenya, V.S. 1982. New data on the migrations and distribution of Pacific sardines in the Northwest Pacific.
Sov. J. Mar. Biol. 8(1):41-48.

Lasker, R. 1978. The relation between oceanographic conditions and larval anchovy food in the California
Current: Identification of the factors leading to recruitment failure. Rapp. P.-v. Reun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer 173:212-230.

Laurs, R. 1983. The North Pacific albacore - An important visitor to California Current waters. Calif. Coop.
Ocean. Fish. Invest. Rep. 24:99-106.

Lee, K.N. 1989. The Columbia River Basin: Experimenting with sustainability. Environment. 31:6-33.

MacCall, A. 1983. Variability of pelagic fish stocks off California in Proceedings of the expert consultation
to examine changes in abundance and species composition of neritic fish resources. San Jose, Costa Rica, 18-29 April 1983. pp. 101-112. ed. by G. Sharp and J. Scirke. FAO Fish. Rep. 291(2):1-553.

MacCall, A., Methot, R., Huppert, D., and Klingbeil, R. 1983. Northern anchovy fishery management plan.
October 24, 1983. Pacif. Fish. Management Council, 526 SW Mill Street, Portland, OR 97201.

Miller, A.J., 1996. Recent advances in California Current modeling: decadal and interannual thermocline
variations. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Rep. 37.

NRC (National Research Council). 1985. Oil in the sea: Inputs, fates, and effects. National Academy
Press, Washington, D.C.

Oregon Ocean Resources Management Task Force. 1988. Managing Oregon’s ocean resources. Interim
report to the Joint Legislative Committee on Land Use, July 1, 1988. Oregon Department of Land Conservation and Development, Portland, OR.

Parrish, R.H., Nelson, C.S., and Bakun, A. 1981. Transport mechanisms and reproductive success of fishes
in the California Current. Biol. Oceanogr. 1:175-203.

Parrish, R.H., Bakun, A. Husby, D.M., and Nelson, C.S. 1983. Comparative climatology of selected
environmental processes in relation to eastern boundary current pelagic fish reproduction. in Proceedings of the expert consultation to examine changes in abundance and species composition of neritic fish resources. pp. 731-778. ed. by G.D. Sharp and J. Csirke. FAO Fish Rep. 291. FAO

Peterman, R.M. 1990a. Statistical power analysis can improve fisheries research and management. Can. J.
Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47:2-15.

Peterman, R.M. 1990b. The importance of reporting statistical power: The forest decline and acidic
deposition example. Ecology 71:2024-1017.

Prager, M.H., and MacCall, A.D. 1990. Biostatistical models of contaminant and climate influences on fish
populations of the Southern California Bight. Old Dominion University Oceanography Tech. Rep. 90-04.

Roemmich, D., and J. McGowan, 1995a. Climatic warming and the decline of zooplankton in the
California Current. Science 267:1324-1326.

Roemmich, D., and J. McGowan, 1995b. Sampling zooplankton: correction. Science 268:352-353.

Saiki, M. 1988. Time dependent variability with a few decades. in: Studies on fishery oceanography—
Proceedings of the 25th anniversary symposium "Fisheries and fishery oceanography in the coming century," Tokyo, November 10-13, 1986. pp. 358-366. Japanese Society of Fisheries Oceanography.

Smith, R.L. 1974. A description of current, wind, and sea level variations during coastal upwelling off the
Oregon Coast, July-August 1972. J. Geophys. Res. 79:435-443.

Starr R.M. and Saelens, M.R. 1987. Identification of important marine habitat. Oregon Department of Fish
and Wildlife, Project Completion Report. Portland, OR.

Ware, D.M., and Thomson, R.E. 1991. Link between long-term variability in upwelling and fish production
in the northeast Pacific Ocean. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 48:2296-2306.

Wooster, W.S., and Reid, J.L., 1963. Eastern boundary currents. In: The sea. Vol. 2. pp. 253-280. Ed. by
M.N. Hill. Interscience Pub., New York.

Wyllie, J.G. 1966. Geostrophic flow of the California Current at the surface and at 200 m. CalCOFI Atlas
No. 4. Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA.

modified  23 September 2003